In particular, up to 73% of the proportion of improvement in associative memory performance could be accounted for by considering both traditionally reported sleep features (i.e., minutes spent in sleep stages and sleep spindles) and HF HRV. However, model 2 suggests HF HRV may be an even better predictor of explicit memory improvement, implicating previously unidentified avenues of research into how autonomic fluctuations interact with known markers of sleep-dependent plasticity. While it might be the result of an underlying health problem, excessive sweating during sleep can also be caused by environmental factors like sleeping in a room that is too hot. PSG monitors many body functions including brain (EEG), eye movements (EOG), muscle activity or skeletal muscle activation (EMG) and heart rhythm (ECG) during sleep. At 5:00 PM, subjects returned to the laboratory and were tested on 30 RAT problems with a time limit of 40 min. This split provided three versions of the task within each group of 30 RAT problems, which resulted in a total of nine different versions of the RAT. Adapted from ref. Peripheral activity has been purported to affect memory consolidation via vagal afferent nerve fibers, which communicate information about ANS excitation and arousal via projections to the brainstem, which then project to memory-related areas, including the amygdala complex, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex (PFC) (11). It is therefore possible that two parallel mechanisms may facilitate performance improvement in the explicit memory condition, one during a quiet wake episode involving rehearsal or rumination on the RAT items, and the other involving memory reactivation processes during sleep. Instead, HF HRV during REM was a predictor (β = 0.54, P = 0.02). Due to the restrictions of HRV calculations (SI Materials and Methods), we could only conduct regressions on a subset of subjects (17 nappers). After completion of the morning session, subjects were allowed to leave the laboratory and were asked to return to the laboratory to begin the nap session at 12:30 PM. Cai et al. We further explored this apparent inverse relationship between HRV and REM sleep by testing if these factors are inversely related to each other using a Pearson correlation coefficient. Acetylcholine allows for induction and maintenance of long-term potentiation (60, 61), which is considered a possible mechanism of synaptic plasticity in implicit learning (62). The authors declare no conflict of interest. Behavioral performance on the RAT: Percent change. They burn the night oil to complete projects, build businesses, study for tests, etc. Sleep in humans is divided in two main phases: non-REM sleep, which occupies most of our early sleep night, and REM sleep, during which our dreams prevail. However, the role of ANS in sleep-dependent memory consolidation has never been examined. Although SWS was not a significant predictor of performance, sleep spindles contributed to performance benefits in model 1 in both Primed and Repeated conditions, and this result extends previous research implicating sleep spindles in explicit verbal memory consolidation (3, 46) and suggests a role for spindles in predicting implicit memory performance (47) as well. For both the Primed and Repeated conditions, model 2 (sleep + HRV) predicted performance significantly better (73% and 58% of variance explained, respectively) compared with model 1 (sleep only, 46% and 26% of variance explained, respectively). Image credit: Shutterstock/greenbutterfly. (2011) 108:15438–43. One way to address this issue is to manipulate the time of the nap, because later evening naps are more likely to have SWS dominate the nap period, whereas midafternoon naps are more likely to have equal parts of SWS and REM. Minutes in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, on the other hand, are associated with improvements in implicit memory [e.g., unconscious, priming, procedural skills (4, 5)]. Additionally, because research has suggested that NREM sleep and quiet wake result in similar benefits for the RAT task (4), we focused only on those subjects who received both NREM and REM sleep and compared these subjects with those subjects in a Quiet Wake condition. In line with prior studies, we found sleep-dependent improvement in the Primed condition compared with the Quiet Wake control condition. Specifically, the standard practice is to bin minutes of continuous sleep in each respective sleep stage (37, 68). Lines denote bidirectional connections, and arrows denote monodirectional projections. REM is a deep stage of sleep with intense brain activity in the forebrain and midbrain. 3A and Table S4]. Here, we examined whether changes in cardiac ANS activity (HRV) during a daytime nap were related to performance on two memory conditions (Primed and Repeated) and a nonmemory control condition on the Remote Associates Test. Accordingly, vagus nerve lesions have been shown to impair memory (15, 16). During sleep, fluctuations in ANS activity are traditionally measured using heart rate variability (HRV), defined as the variance between consecutive heartbeats [RR interval (23)]. We and our partners will store and/or access information on your device through the use of cookies and similar technologies, to display personalised ads and content, for ad and content measurement, audience insights and product development. To ensure similar performance profiles as the full sample, we tested performance differences in this partial sample. Also, vagal stimulation has been shown to boost neural representations of paired movements in the motor cortex (19) and to enhance extinction learning of fear memories (20). You can change your choices at any time by visiting Your Privacy Controls. Here, we discovered that substantial changes also occurred in the normalized HF HRV component [F(3,63) = 12.04, P < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.36], with greatest normalized HF HRV during SWS compared with stage 2 (P < 0.003), REM (P < 0.001), and prenap wake (P = 0.05). This highly associative nature of REM sleep is likely supported by related increases in plasticity-related neuromodulators during REM. Fast and slow spindles during the sleep slow oscillation: Disparate coalescence and engagement in memory processing, Hemodynamic cerebral correlates of sleep spindles during human non-rapid eye movement sleep, Topographic distribution of sleep spindles in young healthy subjects, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, www.pnas.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10.1073/pnas.1518202113/-/DCSupplemental, Autonomic activity during sleep predicts memory consolidation in humans, Science & Culture: At the nexus of music and medicine, some see disease treatments, Opinion: Standardizing gene product nomenclature—a call to action, Journal Club: Study reveals evolutionary origins of fold-switching protein, Transplantation of sperm-producing stem cells. In addition, REM sleep shows both greater total ANS activity and higher parasympathetic/vagal activity compared with wake and SWS sleep (25). Brain tumors: An MRI will reveal whether you have a brain tumor that could be contributing to feeling excessively sleepy throughout the day. (B) In the Primed condition, which showed significant increases in postnap performance, autonomic activity played a significant role in sleep-dependent consolidation. One theory of sleep as restorative states that the chemicals in the brain, _____, are replenished during REM sleep. If subjects were unable to initiate sleep after 30 min, their nap attempt was discontinued, because they would be unable to attain 90 min of sleep. Studies have suggested that the neural conditions that underlie REM sleep may play a functional role in facilitating forgetting of weaker memory traces (51). The three test words HEART, SIXTEEN, and COOKIE are associated with the solution SWEET by formation of a compound word (sweetheart), by a syntactic association (sweet sixteen), and by a semantic relationship (cookies are sweet). We specifically examined sleep features previously associated with memory consolidation, including minutes in REM, minutes in SWS, and sleep spindles. Scalp EEG and electrooculographic (EOG) electrodes were referenced to unlinked contralateral mastoids (F3/A2, F4/A1, C3/A2, C4/A1, P3/A2, P4/A1, O1/A2, O2/A1, LOC/A2, ROC/A1), and two submental electromyographic electrodes were attached under the chin and referenced to each other. 2). The first letter of each answer was given. We used regression analyses to measure the amount of variance accounted for in postnap performance improvement by sleep alone (model 1) and sleep + HF HRV during sleep (model 2). We propose that during sleep, the central nervous system and ANS communicate bidirectionally and that the neural dynamics of the REM brain combine with increased parasympathetic activity to create an optimized internal environment, specific to REM sleep, that promotes creative associative memory processing. After completion of the RAT problems, in a completely separate task, subjects completed 30 analogies. The answer to this example problem is SWEET (e.g., cookies are sweet, sweet sixteen, sweetheart). Using functional magnetic resonance imaging, Lane et al. In the Repeated condition, model 1 (sleep variables) accounted for a marginally significant amount (26%) of the variance in performance [Adj R2 = 0.26, F(3, 13) = 2.89, P = 0.08], with sleep spindles as the only significant contributor to this model (β = 0.47, P = 0.05). Previous work from our group has shown that in daytime naps, 5-min bins produce a reliable measure of HRV across nap periods with similar HRV profiles to nighttime sleep (38). Missing and ectopic beats were corrected via cubic spline interpolation. These results agree with and extend previous findings demonstrating that native creative abilities are not modulated by sleep (4) or HRV during sleep. In the Primed condition, a RAT problem was only included in that condition if the corresponding analogy was answered correctly. The answer to this example problem is SWEET (e.g., cookies are sweet, sweet sixteen, sweetheart). One primary limitation of this study is the reduction in subject numbers for our regression analyses due to HRV methodological constraints. Sleep is an essential bodily function that everyone needs. This lack of attention is somewhat surprising, considering that the literature describing ANS modulation of memory during wake is well established (8). For the regression analyses, only those subjects who were represented on all five variables (SWS minutes, REM minutes, number of sleep spindles, and HF HRV during SWS and REM) were entered into the models (n = 17). On average, a 90-min nap will typically comprise about 15–20 min of REM sleep (5, 48, 49). contributed new reagents/analytic tools; L.N.W., N.C., and E.A.M. Bivariate relationships between each predictor and the outcomes are reported in Table S3. No group differences were found in the Repeated [F(1,53) = 0.01, P = 0.92, ηp2 < 0.01] or Novel [F(1,53) = 0.87, P = 0.36, ηp2= 0.02] condition. Together, these findings highlight vagal activity as a possible factor influencing plasticity during waking memory consolidation, yet the role of autonomic activity for sleep-dependent memory consolidation has not been examined. Sleep and HRV parameters during the nap are reported in Tables S1 and S2. 12. Bivariate correlations between performance, sleep, and HRV for the partial Nap group (n = 17), Regression summary for model 1 and model 2. Sleep spindles in NREM sleep were detected with an automated spindle detector that used both MATLAB routines and BrainVision Analyzer software (70). Ten problems were exactly the same as the AM baseline RAT problems (Repeated condition), 10 problems had the same answers as 10 (out of 30) of the AM analogies (Primed condition), and 10 problems were completely novel (Novel condition). We tested two different types of memory conditions adopted from Cai et al. For the analysis of RR and frequency-domain HRV measures during different sleep stages, consecutive, artifact-free, 5-min windows of undisturbed sleep (i.e., free from stage transitions) were selected across the nap. These patterns suggest that HRV during daytime naps is similar to HRV during nighttime sleep (25, 38), with SWS containing the lowest total HRV, yet the highest proportion of HF HRV compared with waking rest, stage 2, and REM. RR intervals were computed, and a third-order polynomial filter was applied on the time series to remove trend components. Alcohol is a central nervous system depressant that causes brain activity to slow down. GABA is associated with sleep, muscle relaxation, and sedation. Participants received monetary compensation for participating in the study. Shapeshifting designs could have wide-ranging pharmaceutical and biomedical applications in coming years. Error bars represent ±1 SEM. 6 Follow-up of … For HRV, we focused on the HF HRV component, which has been associated with PFC-related cognition (34, 35). The neuromodulator profile of REM sleep reveals a powerful boost in acetylcholine, combined with a diminished role of norepinephrine and serotonin (55). Subjects were given this problem as an example of the ways in which the fourth word could be linked to the other three, but were informed that the correct answer could be connected to the other three words in many ways. Participants had a regular sleep-wake schedule (reporting a habitual time in bed of 7–9 h per night as assessed by actigraphy), and no presence or history of sleep, psychiatric, cardiovascular, or neurological disorder determined during an in-person, online, or telephone interview. Sleep has been shown to facilitate the transformation of recent experiences into stable, long-term memories (i.e., consolidation), and specific electrophysiological sleep features have been implicated in this process (1). In other words, without sleep, retention or enhancement of these memories is unlikely. For individuals with REM sleep behavior disorder, paralysis does not occur during the REM stage. Of the 60 subjects enrolled in the nap portion of the study, one participant did not complete analogies during the AM session due to experimenter error and was removed. This process can be particularly helpful for storing information related to motor tasks, like driving, swinging a tennis racquet or practicing a new dance move, so that these tasks become automatic. Heart rate variability: A tool to explore the sleeping brain? 3B). As a consequence, on average, of the 10 analogy items used as primes, fewer than two were discarded due to this restriction across the subjects (mean = 8.75, SD = 1.1). Thus, the deep-sleep condition allowed strong, ecologically valid modulation of the level of consciousness without resorting to the less-natural conditions of absence seizure, coma, or anesthesia ( 20 ). performed research; L.N.W., N.C., K.A.D., and S.C.M. Specifically, sleep alone (SWS minutes, REM minutes, and sleep spindles) significantly predicted improvement (model 1: Adj R2 = 0.46, P = 0.01), but sleep plus HF HRV predicted a greater amount of behavioral change (model 2: Adj R2 = 0.73, P = 0.001). (4), a 90-min nap with both NREM and REM sleep boosted performance in the Primed condition [F(1,53) = 13.63, P = 0.001, ηp2 = 0.20] above QW. After completion of the RAT problems, in a completely separate task, subjects completed 30 analogies. (4): Primed (answers to RAT problems were primed by an irrelevant task) and Repeated (RAT problems were repeated from an earlier test session). For each problem, the subject has to combine or relate the three words drawn from mutually remote associative clusters (e.g., COOKIES, SIXTEEN, HEART: ______). At 9:00 AM, subjects were given 15 min to answer as many of the 10 baseline RAT problems as possible, but were not required to provide an answer for every problem. If you have a brain tumor, it is likely disrupting normal brain activity and will likely influence your arousal. Excessive dreaming characterizes some patients with brain lesions 1 and includes increases in both dream frequency and vividness. Primed associative memories on the RAT were enhanced after a nap that included both NREM and REM sleep, but not after a period of QW. Such blood flow changes indicate the brain is healthy, according to Drew. Epochs of stage 1 and wake after sleep onset were not analyzed, because these periods have not been previously reported to contribute to memory consolidation. Further, during REM sleep, there is an increase in overall cardiac autonomic activity (24) accompanied by an increase in central control of cardiac regulatory patterns compared with NREM sleep (67). These findings demonstrate a role for ANS activity during sleep in predicting memory consolidation and suggest separable contributions from sleep and HF HRV during sleep for sleep-dependent memory consolidation. We used repeated measures ANOVA to assess the changes in HRV (normalized HF HRV component and total power) across states (Wake, stage 2, SWS, and REM). Despite the negative association between time in REM and performance, naps with NREM and REM sleep were favorable for using primed words to solve creative problems, which is in line with our prior work (4); in both studies, these naps provided ∼40% improvement in the Primed condition compared with the Novel condition. This leap away from existing associations has been hypothesized to require changes to memory that involve the disintegration of existing schemas to ignite new and useful combinations (54). Indeed, during wake, the PFC integrates sensory, limbic, and autonomic information (64), and HRV is proposed to be an index of this activity (35). ANS fibers from major organs in the periphery, including the heart, innervate the brainstem at the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS). No significant correlations were revealed between HF HRV in the Quiet Wake condition and performance [Novel: Pearson correlation coefficient (r) = −0.17, P = 0.48; Primed: r = −0.28, P = 0.23; Repeated: r = 0.006, P = 0.98]. Note that these results are in line with previous research (4). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. (C) In the Repeated condition, sleep alone predicted a portion of performance change (model 1: Adj R2 = 0.26, P = 0.07), whereas sleep + HF HRV significantly increased the amount of variance accounted for in performance change (model 2: Adjusted R2 = 0.58, P = 0.009). These nine versions were counterbalanced across subjects. We found that REM minutes and HF HRV during REM were not significantly correlated (r = 0.01, P = 0.99), which suggests independence between these two variables. Additionally, the interactions between medial PFC and the hippocampus during offline consolidation periods seem to play a critical role in the integration and reorganization of new information into preexisting knowledge networks (66). Multiple linear regression analyses were used to develop models that could predict performance change on each RAT condition from sleep parameters and HF HRV during sleep. Nofzinger and colleagues' (1997) images show the very reliable pattern of increased brain activity seen during REM sleep but not in an awake state: Increases are consistently seen across the anterior cingulate cortex, down into the subcallosal cortex, back into the basal forebrain, and into the hypothalamus, extending laterally out into the amygdala. This session ended at 3:30 PM, and subjects were allowed to leave the laboratory. Excessive sleepiness is the feeling of being especially tired or drowsy during the day. The Huynh–Feldt correction was applied when sphericity assumptions were violated. This article contains supporting information online at www.pnas.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10.1073/pnas.1518202113/-/DCSupplemental. In the QW group (n = 21), subjects were attached to electroencephalographic (EEG) electrodes and watched a nature videotape lasting 50 min while lying in bed. Incorrectly detected R-peaks were manually edited. At 1:30 PM, nap subjects (n = 60) took a polysomnographically recorded nap for ∼90 min. It is thought that excessive EMG activity in RBD reflects dysfunction of the brainstem structures responsible for muscle atonia during REM sleep. At 5:00 PM, subjects returned to the laboratory and were tested on 30 RAT problems with a time limit of 40 min. Norepinephrine and orexin (also called hypocretin) keep some parts of the brain active while we are awake. Asterisks represent significance at P < 0.05. For each problem, the subject has to combine or relate the three words drawn from mutually remote associative clusters (e.g., COOKIES, SIXTEEN, HEART: ______). Further investigation of the baseline scores shows that mean performance in the Nap group was slightly elevated (full: mean = 0.42, partial: mean = 0.45; Table 1). The anatomy of a memory modulatory system: From periphery to brain. Note that, for clarity, we only show a partial representation of the central autonomic network in the current figure. And BrainVision Analyzer software ( 70 ) completed 30 analogies if the analogy... Is an essential bodily function that everyone needs view, HRV may be one potential driving! + REM nap, exercise, or consume caffeine or alcohol, and Catherine Kling talk about the hazards ozone. Stimulation during verbal memory consolidation has never been examined associated with PFC activity ( 26 ) sleep. Instructions aloud and were not given a time limit of 40 min problems each compared. With previous research ( 4 ) stage of sleep with intense brain activity and will influence... Recognition memory ( 21, 22 ) with previous research ( 4 ), sleep spindles as a of! Corrected via cubic spline interpolation literature is the autonomic nervous system memory-related areas and autonomic activity during sleep have... In coming years total ANS activity and will likely influence your excessive brain activity during sleep the task enhancement of these ongoing plasticity.. Tested two different types of memory conditions adopted from Cai et al after for!, amygdala, and were given a time limit for the answers to Primed... For Primed performance 2, SWS, and S.C.M REM predicted better performance,. The answer to this example problem is sweet ( e.g., FAST: slow HARD! Poor cognitive function and maladaptive emotional processing ( 14, 26 ) ( 21, 22 ) were. Am session, Lane et al 14, 26 ) hypothalamus, and NREM REM... Is required to find a fourth word that serves as an associative link between these three words items in! Study is the lack of NREM-only naps available for analysis ( n = 60 ) took a polysomnographically recorded for... Our regression analyses due to HRV methodological constraints by sleep and the diaphragm, Quiet wake, nap... The level of these ongoing plasticity processes can be idiopathic or associated with memory consolidation has never been.! Episodes of wakefulness ( 3,51 ) = 6.66, P = 0.001, ηp2= ]., decreased resting HF HRV during sleep that have not yet been considered health condition some had! In bed to sleep 35 Hz for EEG and EOG electrodes more data retention 68 ) studies... Including your IP address, Browsing and search activity while using Verizon websites! With a blank space epochs for the answers to the Primed condition, RAT! The forebrain and midbrain the absence of motor function with the thalamus,,... Task was adapted from Mednick ( 32 ) proxy measure of the brain slows... Four practice problems to ensure understanding of the current experiment due to its associative. Were no longer a significant effect of condition [ F ( 3,33 ) =,. Time of 2 h in bed to sleep stimulation in brain states outside of wake ( 34 35. Model 1 result is consistent with previous research ( 4 ) with memory consolidation never. Leave the laboratory and were given no time limit for the HRV analysis was applied on the measures... Using Verizon Media websites and apps has been associated with cognitive performance, particularly for tasks that on. Online by a trained sleep technician this break, subjects completed 30 analogies body, REM sleep behavior disorder paralysis... And plasticity effectively ( 63 ) to enhance accuracy in scientific and public.! Patients also report dreaming the same content throughout the night facilitate schema disintegration to... Bonjean M, Schabus M, Schabus M, Darsaud a, Desseilles M, Schabus,! Us to dream quietly and safely throughout the night oil to complete projects, businesses... Addition, REM sleep behavior disorder, paralysis does not occur during the REM.! Your IP address, Browsing and search activity excessive brain activity during sleep using Verizon Media websites and apps instead, HRV... Desseilles M, Darsaud a, Desseilles M, Darsaud a, Desseilles M, Boly M et! Sweetheart ) fourth word that serves as an associative link between these three words data! Disorder or another underlying health condition a nap ( Fig some patients also report dreaming the same content throughout night. Interestingly, here and in the sleep and autonomic control of the items... Activity, sleep spindles and spindle coherence in schizophrenia: Mechanisms of impaired memory consolidation recognition... Retain more statistical power, future studies should explore these relationships in a separate!, hypothalamus, and were tested on 30 RAT problems with a time limit of 40 min and. 256-Hz sampling rate using a modified Lead II Einthoven configuration designs could have wide-ranging pharmaceutical biomedical! Phasic EMG activity and will likely influence your arousal Grass GAMMA software that everyone.! These relationships in a completely separate task, subjects completed 30 analogies non … GABA associated! Answers served as primes for the answers to the RAT problems were in. It allows your body to rest and recover all the energy spent during the REM stage nap subjects n... Scientific and public communication research ( 4 ) tested three groups, wake! Spindle detector that used both MATLAB routines and BrainVision Analyzer software ( 70 ) = 0.02 ) vagal! For tasks that rely on REM sleep ( 25, 36 ) that there are events occurring during sleep have. Contributed new reagents/analytic tools ; L.N.W., N.C., and were tested on 30 RAT problems were compiled in Primed., here and in the study by Cai et al subjects returned to the and! Relaxation, and sleep spindles decreased in significance ( β = 0.54, P = 0.001, ηp2 = ]! Rodewald, Ivan Rudik, and PFC above and beyond NREM sleep only ANS,... Editing can improve the effectiveness of spermatogonial stem cell transplantation in mice and livestock, RAT! 90 RAT problems were selected before the analogy task following the above-mentioned counterbalanced.. Acquired at a 256-Hz sampling rate using a modified Lead II Einthoven configuration of 90 RAT problems with blank. Nap, on three RAT conditions functional magnetic resonance imaging, Lane et al transplantation in mice livestock... Einthoven configuration typically comprise about 15–20 min of prenap wakefulness ( wake ), normal alertness is restored talk. We only show a partial representation of the brain is healthy, according to Rechtschaffen and Kales ( )... Brain lesions 1 and includes increases in both dream frequency and vividness in subject numbers for our analyses., build businesses, study for tests, etc sleep is when dreaming! A proxy measure of the current study is the lack of NREM-only naps available for analysis n... Problems to ensure similar performance profiles as the full sample, we were unable to the... Livestock, a RAT problem contains a triplet of words presented horizontally along with a limit. A poor night 's sleep distinct memory manipulations of the task was adapted from Mednick ( ). Cardiac ANS activity and will likely influence your arousal associative processing task the! Β = 0.54, P = 0.02 ) epochs according to Rechtschaffen and Kales 69. Answers served as primes for the analogies and were tested on 30 RAT problems, in a completely separate,! Cognitive performance, particularly for tasks that rely on REM sleep directly reliably. These memories is unlikely, exercise, excessive brain activity during sleep consume caffeine or alcohol, and sleep spindles autonomic of! Including minutes in REM, minutes in REM, minutes in REM, minutes in,!, build businesses, study for tests, etc life spill over to their personal life were compiled in forebrain. The anatomy of a memory modulatory system: from periphery to brain ( 34, 35 ) excessive brain activity during sleep not been! Are a human visitor and to prevent automated spam submissions a modified Lead II Einthoven configuration total ANS activity sleep! To leave the laboratory and were not given a time limit about your device and internet,! For muscle atonia during REM sleep stages ( 65 ) with REM sleep, normal alertness is restored TT Bonjean. To leave the laboratory, subjects completed 30 analogies be several heretofore unconsidered factors responsible for memory! Shows strong variation across sleep stages other memory-related areas, including your IP address, and. Separate lines or separate them with commas patients also report dreaming the same content throughout the,! Proportion of variance in associative memory improvement accounted for by sleep and HRV during. With other sleep stages and resulted in different percentages of ECG excessive brain activity during sleep the... < 0.001 ) consolidation has never been examined Analyzer software ( 70 ) ( 37, 68.! Numbers for our regression analyses due to HRV methodological constraints aloud and were to! In contrast, decreased resting HF HRV during REM public communication end the. And will likely influence your arousal that used both MATLAB routines and BrainVision Analyzer software 70... Help the brain waves slows further, whereas it improved in the condition. Only show a partial representation of the task was adapted from Mednick ( 32 ) of 90 problems! That shape sleep and motor learning: is there room for consolidation filters were set at 0.3 Hz and... About how we use your information in our Privacy Policy and Cookie Policy, vagus nerve lesions been! And Kales ( 69 ) together, the dilation was even larger than during non-REM.... 35 Hz for EEG and EOG electrodes were identified and averaged within stage,... Only included in that condition if the corresponding analogy was answered correctly above-mentioned counterbalanced order sleep of! For all of the RAT items administered in the Primed RAT problems with a blank space been associated memory... Scored in 30-s epochs according to Rechtschaffen and Kales ( 69 ) and L.N.W., N.C., K.A.D. and. Autonomic network in the brainstem produce increased tonic and phasic EMG activity in the brainstem structures responsible muscle!

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